Functional units – Basic operational concepts – Bus Structures – Performance – Power wall – Uniprocessors to multiprocessors; Memory locations and addresses – Memory operations – Instruction and Instruction sequencing –– Addressing modes – Assembly language – Case study: RISC and CISC Architecture.

Addition and subtraction of signed numbers – Design of fast adders – Multiplication of positive numbers - Signed operand multiplication- fast multiplication – Integer division – Floating point numbers and operations

Fundamental concepts – Execution of a complete instruction – Multiple bus organization – Hardwired control – Micro programmed control – Pipelining: Basic concepts – Data hazards – Instruction hazards – Influence on Instruction sets – Data path and control consideration – Case study: Processor Families

Basic concepts of Semiconductor RAMs - ROMs – Speed, Size and Cost – Cache memories – Performance consideration – Virtual memory – Memory Management requirements – Secondary storage - Case Study: Memory Organization in Multiprocessors

Accessing I/O devices – Interrupts – Direct Memory Access – Buses–Interface circuits – Standard I/O Interfaces (PCI, SCSI, USB) –Instruction Level Parallelism: Concepts and Challenges –Introduction to Graphics Processing Units, Clusters, Warehouse Scale Computers and other Message-Passing Multiprocessors